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| Fig. 1: A modern Formula 1 racecar, driven by reigning champion Max Verstappen in Austria 2024. (Source: Wikimedia Commons) |
In modern Formula 1, performance hinges on how efficiently a car converts a fixed energy budget into the lowest possible lap time. The 2025 FIA technical regulations limit both fuel flow and hybrid deployment, which removes the traditional path of increasing power output. [1,2] The engineering priority has shifted toward reducing losses, especially aerodynamic losses, because air resistance dominates the power balance above roughly 200 km/h (Formula 1 cars easily exceed this speed). [3] Even small changes in drag and downforce quantitatively alter straight-line speed, cornering capability, and overall lap time. As a result, contemporary Formula 1 design is defined by a series of aerodynamic tradeoffs: reducing the energy wasted on drag while generating enough downforce to maximize tire grip. [2]
Drag is a resistive force defined by the following equations where ρ is air density, A is the car's reference area, CD is the drag coefficient, and v is velocity: [3]
| FD | = | 0.5ρCDAv2 | PD | = | FDv | = | 0.5ρCDAv3 |
When a car moves through air, it faces a resistive force that grows with the square of velocity. The power required to overcome that drag scales with the cube of velocity. This means that doubling speed makes drag 4x greater, and requires 8x more power to push air. At racing speeds, aerodynamic drag becomes the main consumer of energy. [2] A typical Formula 1 car (Fig. 1) at 300 km/h uses hundreds of kilowatts just to counteract air resistance. [2] Using representative values from the literature, where ρ = 1.2 kg/m3, A = 1.5 m2, CD = 0.90, at v = 300 km/h = 83 m/s, the drag power is approximately [4]
| PD | = | 0.5 × 1.2 kg m-3 × 0.9 × 1.5 m2 × (83 m sec-1)3 |
| ≈ | 460 kW |
Downforce follows from the same pressure and shear fields that generate drag, but it does not incur a direct power cost because it acts perpendicular to the direction of motion. The aerodynamic lift (negative for a racecar) is [3]
| FL | = | 0.5ρCLAv2 |
Downforce is negative lift, produced by assigning CL < 0 for inverted wings. In conventional aerodynamics, positive lift acts upward, but Formula 1 wings are inverted so that the same physical mechanism generates a force in the downward direction. [5] The pressure differential across the wing surfaces produces a net force pushing the car toward the track, improving mechanical grip. Modern cars can reach -FL values exceeding 2-3x vehicle weight at approximately 250 km/h, reflecting the large magnitude of CL achievable under current regulations. [1,6] Cornering performance follows directly from the normal load on the tires. The maximum lateral force is
where μ is the tire-road friction coefficient. A 5% change in CL produces a proportional change in downforce and noticeably shifts the cornering limit, especially in medium speed sections where aerodynamic load dominates the tire behavior.
Because lift and drag originate from the same pressure and shear distributions, increasing downforce usually increases drag. [6] The key aerodynamic efficiency metric is the ratio L/D, or equivalently, |CL|/CD. [3] Modern Formula 1 cars achieve values around 3-4, which is much lower than aircraft but significant given proximity to the ground and regulatory constraints. This ratio captures the tradeoff, how many units of downforce are gained for each unit of drag added. To further complicate design, CD and CL are not independent, as changes in wing angle (for example) modify both simultaneously, so engineers use aero maps to quantify their interaction. [2]
The usefulness of downforce or drag depends strongly on track layout. Circuits such as Monza and Baku feature extended full throttle sections above 300 km/h. [4] Here, the cubic power penalty makes drag extremely costly to performance. Teams then adopt low drag, low downforce configurations: small rear wing angles, simplified upper bodywork, and reduced flap complexity. [2] Cornering performance is sacrificed because straight-line gains dominate lap time.
At the other extreme, Monaco and Hungary emphasize low and medium speed corners, short straights, and frequent braking. The energy cost of higher drag is modest, while increased downforce significantly improves braking stability, traction, and lateral grip. In these cases, maximizing CL is crucial.
Intermediate circuits such as Silverstone or Suzuka require a compromise between the forces. The optimal configuration is sensitive, because changes of only a few thousandths in CD or a few tenths in CL can move the setup from net gain to net loss. The takeaway is that no single aerodynamic package performs best at every circuit. This is why teams select bodywork tailored to how the car allocates time across straights and corners, which varies with each track. For a ballpark estimate, at Monza, more than 75% of the lap is spent at full throttle and drag power at 330 km/h exceeds 800 kW, while at Monaco, top speeds rarely exceed 290 km/h, making the drag penalty much smaller.
Increasing wing angle or adding aerodynamic elements generally raises both CL and CD. [3] The engineering task at hand is to find the configuration where time gained in corners equals time lost on straights. Teams estimate this crossover using computational fluid dynamics (CFD), reduced-order aero maps, and wind tunnel data. [2] They evaluate how changes in downforce modify average speed through each segment of a lap. If the lap is dominated by low speed sections, higher downforce yields the best net result. If the lap is dominated by full throttle sections, lower drag prevails.
It is important to note that this tradeoff is nonlinear. A small increase in CD at high speed can consume tens of kilojoules of additional energy per lap, limiting hybrid deployment options. [3] A corresponding increase in CL can reduce braking distances and raise cornering limits enough to recover that time. Balance requires quantifying both effects simultaneously rather than optimizing either metric in isolation.
In recent years, The FIA regulatory framework has driven the development of aerodynamic systems that adapt to varying speed regimes. [1] The Drag Reduction System (DRS) reduces rear wing drag by opening a slot gap on straights. With DRS closed, the car produces strong downforce; with DRS open, the drag penalty is reduced. Engineers therefore target geometries that maintain clean flow attachment when DRS is engaged while still delivering high downforce in cornering. [2] CFD simulations guide geometry selection, while wind-tunnel tests validate pressure distribution and wake behavior.
Small geometrical adjustments, like millimeter-scale changes to endplates, flap junctions, diffuser ramps, or floor edges, can alter CL or CD by amounts large enough to determine qualifying positions. [2] Because airflow around a Formula 1 car is highly coupled, modifying one element affects upstream and downstream components. Gains in diffuser efficiency, for example, may disrupt rear wing stability, requiring iterative refinement to deliver the final car.
Aerodynamics shapes every aspect of Formula 1 vehicle design. With power capped by regulation, gaining a competitive advantage comes from spending less energy pushing air and more of it generating useful tire load. The physics of lift and drag dictate how engineers evaluate tradeoffs, perform simulations, and tailor the car to different circuits. What distinguishes successful teams is not just producing downforce or reducing drag, but precisely predicting how these forces influence braking, cornering, straight-line performance, and energy usage over an entire lap. Modern Formula 1 performance emerges from these interactions between energy, motion, and aerodynamic control. The result is a sport where victory depends on mastering such feedback loops.
© Lauren Takiguchi. The author warrants that the work is the author's own and that Stanford University provided no input other than typesetting and referencing guidelines. The author grants permission to copy, distribute and display this work in unaltered form, with attribution to the author, for noncommercial purposes only. All other rights, including commercial rights, are reserved to the author.
[1] "2025 Formula One Technical Regulations Issue 03," Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile, April 2025.
[2] S. Rendle, Formula 1 Technology: the Engineering Explained (Evro Publishing Ltd., 2023).
[3] J. Katz, Race Car Aerodynamics: Designing for Speed (Bentley Publishers, 1996).
[4] J. Noble, Formula One Racing for Dummies (Wiley, 2033).
[5] J. Katz, "Aerodynamics in motorsports," Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part P: J. Sports Eng. Technol. 235, 324 (2019).
[6] P. Haney and J. Braun, Inside Racing Technology (Motorbooks Intl., 1997).
