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| Fig. 1: Flamanville nuclear plant in 2023 (Source: Wikimedia Commons) |
France has long been recognized as a global leader in nuclear energy, demonstrating one of the most extensive and successful nuclear power programs in the world. The first nuclear reactors for civilian use were deployed in the 1950s but the real nuclear program began in 1974 as a direct result of the 1973 oil crisis. This decision was made to achieve greater energy security, compensating France's lack of indigenous energy resources thanks to heavy engineering expertise and low nuclear fuel costs. As of today, 56 Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR) are operating on the French territory and a European Pressurized Reactor (EPR) is currently being built at Flamanville (see Fig. 1). This fleet of nuclear reactors allows France to produce 370 TWh of electricity each year (mean of the 20 past years), corresponding to approximately 70% of its total electricity consumption. [1] Despite President Hollande administration's 2014 strategy to diminish nuclear power's contribution in France to 50% by 2025, the country is moving back toward using more nuclear generation. In February 2022, President Macron disclosed plans to construct six new nuclear reactors, with a consideration for an additional eight by 2050. [2]
France's carbon management strategy is significantly influenced by its extensive use of nuclear energy. As one of the world's largest producers of nuclear power, France utilizes this low-carbon energy source to meet a substantial portion of its electricity demands, contributing to a comparatively lower carbon footprint for its electricity sector than many of its European neighbors. With a median of only 12 gCO2/kWh, PWR enable France to maintain lower per capita greenhouse gas emissions and lower emissions for each unit of electricity produced. [3] Specifically, with a carbon intensity of just 86 gCO2/kWh for net electricity production in 2019, France ranks sixth lowest among European countries, well beneath the average for the EU27, which stands at 310 gCO2/kWh. [4] This situation contrasts to that of nations heavily reliant on fossil fuels for their electricity generation, which experience significantly greater carbon emissions due to burning coal, oil, and natural gas. In comparison in 2022, 11% of French electricity is produced by fossil fuels whereas it can reach 46% in Germany or 79% in Poland (see Fig. 2). [5]
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| Fig. 2: Electricity mix of Europe's 10 biggest electricity producers in 2022. [5] (Image Source: T. Zivre) |
Heavy reliance on nuclear energy can also be a significant asset in the context of geopolitical and health crises that have an impact on the security and cost of countries' energy supplies. In 2022, two main events have underscored the vulnerability of relying on foreign gas and highlighted the strategic advantage of France's nuclear power capability. Following the Ukraine crisis, the situation of gas imports from Russia to Europe has undergone a profound transformation as European countries have been actively seeking to reduce their dependence on Russian gas due to geopolitical tensions. [6] Moreover, in September of the same year, a series of underwater explosions occurred on the Nord Stream natural gas pipelines causing leaks in the pipes transporting gas from Russia to Germany. Even though the damage didn't have an immediate impact on Europe's energy supplies since Russia cut off flows earlier, European gas prices saw a jump of 14% and the end of the Nord Stream pipeline projects is likely to be seen. [7] In that context, unlike natural gas which is subject to geopolitical tensions and disruptions in supply lines, nuclear power offers France a more stable and controlled energy source.
However, it's crucial to note that while nuclear power provides France with a considerable degree of energy autonomy, it can't be said that it is a completely independent energy, as 100% of the nuclear fuel used is imported from abroad. The annual report from the Ministry of Ecological Transition states that France's energy independence stood at 53.4% in summer 2021 but that number is very dependent on what is considered as nuclear primary energy. [8] If the calculation is made using heat emitted by the reactor as primary energy, as the statistical convention demands, then the previous number is correct. But if the nuclear fuel is used instead, then this number can drop by 40%. [9] This dependence on uranium imports might seem like a big point of vulnerability, yet France mitigates this risk through a diversification strategy. By importing nuclear fuel from four different countries, France spreads its geopolitical risk and ensures a more secure supply chain. This strategy of sourcing from multiple nations provides a layer of insulation against the political and economic shocks that can affect single-source supply chains, thereby ensuring that the lights stay on, and the reactors keep humming, even in times of international turbulence. Furthermore, the director general of nuclear group Orano Philippe Knoche affirms that 44% of the uranium comes from OECD countries, which would protect imports from geopolitical blackmail, even though strategic contracts between these states have been breached before. [10]
Nuclear power has encountered significant challenges in recent years, notably in 2022, when nuclear reactors produced only 279 TWh of electricity, a 25% decrease from the average of the past two decades, owing to various overlapping issues. [1] Predominantly, the nuclear facilities currently operational in France, largely constructed during the 1980s boom, are nearing the end of their initial 40-year service life. In response, the French government, together with EDF, embarked on an initiative sanctioned by the ASN (French Nuclear Safety Authority) in 2021, to prolong the lifespan of these reactors by an additional decade. [11] This life extension necessitates comprehensive maintenance to guarantee the ongoing functionality of the power plants. Amid these maintenance activities, a significant issue of stress corrosion was identified within the reactor cooling safety systems. [12] This corrosion, if unchecked, can evolve into cracks, jeopardizing the efficiency of the plants. The identification of this problem led to the temporary closure of 12 of the newer reactors. Compounded by the maintenance delays due to the pandemic, a total of 32 out of 56 reactors were offline during summer 2022 at the peak of the crisis, and 26 were still inactive as the winter approached, posing additional challenges. [12]
EDF and French unions highlight the diminished capacity of France's nuclear workforce as a fundamental factor prolonging maintenance shutdowns, a situation exacerbated by the government's vacillating support and ambiguous policies regarding nuclear energy. [13] Historically, Europe's nuclear powerhouse, France's landscape began to shift due to political changes and growing environmental concerns, particularly after the Fukushima disaster in 2011. President Macron's initial term saw commitments to reduce reliance on nuclear power, aligning with his predecessors' cautious approach post-Fukushima. However, the war in Ukraine and the imperative for low-carbon energy sources precipitated a stark reversal in policy, with Macron announcing plans for new reactors. [2] This U-turn, from preparing for decommissioning to advocating for expansion, has left the industry in a precarious position, struggling with a depleted and underprepared workforce, a consequence of years of fluctuating governmental policies and public sentiment towards nuclear energy, oscillating between advocacy for nuclear as a low-carbon energy source and concerns over safety, waste management, and high costs associated with building new plants or refurbishing old ones.
© Theo Zivre. The author warrants that the work is the author's own and that Stanford University provided no input other than typesetting and referencing guidelines. The author grants permission to copy, distribute and display this work in unaltered form, with attribution to the author, for noncommercial purposes only. All other rights, including commercial rights, are reserved to the author.
[1] "Bilan Électrique 2022," Le Réseau de Transport d'Électricité, 2022.
[2] A. Chrisafis, "France to Build Up to 14 New Nuclear Reactors by 2050, Says Macron," The Guardian, 10 Feb 22.
[3] E. S. Warner and G. A. Heath, "Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Nuclear Electricity Generation," J. Ind. Ecol. 16, S73 (2012).
[4] N. Scarlat, M. Prussi and M. Padella, "Quantification of the Carbon Intensity of Electricity Produced and Used in Europe," Appl. Energy, 305, 117901 (2022).
[5] D. Jones, "European Electricity Review 2023," Ember Energy, January 2023, p. 42.
[6] A. Sandford, J. Askew and A. Carlo, "Ukraine War: Where Does Each EU Country Stand on Cutting Off Russian Oil and Gas?," Euronews, 16 Apr 22.
[7] "Suspected Sabotage of Nord Stream Pipelines Has Energy Prices Climbing gain," CBC News, 28 Sep 22.
[8] "Conjoncture Énergétique - Deuxième Trimestre 2021", Ministère de la Transition Écologique, August 2021.
[9] "Bilan Énergétique de la France Pour 2019," Ministère de la Transition Écologique, Jan 2021.
[10] P. Breteau, "L'Independance Énergétique de la France Grâce au Nucléaire: un Tour de Passe-Passe Statistique," Le Monde, 24 Jan 22.
[11] E. Bembaron, "Dans les Coulisses du Grand Carénage, l'Autre Mega-Chantier d'EDF," Le Figaro, 5 Apr 23.
[12] "France Prolongs Shutdown of Nuclear Reactors Over Corrosion Amid Rising Energy Prices," France 24, 25 Aug 22.
[13] B. Mallet, "Focus: Welders Wanted: France Steps Up Recruitment Drive as Nuclear Crisis Deepens," Reuters, 29 Nov 22.
