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| Fig. 1: A map indicating the thorium reserves of India, primarily concentrated along its eastern coast, with varying shades showing the quantity of estimated reserves. [2] (Source: Wikimedia Commons) |
As India emerges as a central actor on the global stage, its escalating energy needs continue to expand in parallel with its burgeoning economy and population. The pursuit of energy security, while navigating the push for sustainable development, has become a pressing concern for the nation's policymakers. With an energy infrastructure traditionally reliant on coal and hydrocarbons, the country faces the challenge of diversifying its energy matrix in a manner that aligns with environmental and international commitments to climate change mitigation. Thorium-based nuclear energy presents itself as a candidate of substantial interest in this context, holding the promise of a cleaner and more abundant alternative to conventional nuclear fuels.
Thorium, with its potential to revolutionize the nuclear energy landscape, has garnered significant attention within India's scientific and energy policy circles. Distinguished by its abundance and the promise of safer nuclear reactor designs, thorium offers a compelling alternative to the traditionally utilized uranium. India, endowed with one of the world's largest reserves of thorium, finds itself in a strategic position to leverage this resource. The Indian subcontinent's monazite sands, rich in thorium, have been identified as a cornerstone for the country's long-term nuclear energy strategy. [1] (See Fig. 1.) The Indian Parliament clarified that monazite sand found in Indian beaches and river sands can produce 319,000 tonnes of ThO2 can be obtained. [2,3] Of the 319,000 tonnes of ThO2, India can extract 280,333 tonnes of thorium. [3]
This significant reserve of thorium positions India as a leader in thorium-based research and a potentially major player in the future of nuclear energy that is less dependent on traditional fuels like uranium. Initial policy frameworks and scientific endeavors have been directed towards harnessing these reserves, with the aim of addressing India's growing energy demands while reducing its carbon footprint. The strategic impetus to integrate thorium into the nation's nuclear energy program reflects a foresight to meet not just the immediate energy requirements, but to establish a sustainable and secure energy future for generations to come.
The fraction of Thorium oxide (ThO2) mass that is Thorium is
| 232 232 + 16 + 16 |
= | 0.879 |
The amount of fission energy potentially contained in 1 kg of Th-232 is
| 230 × 106eV atom-1
× 1.602 × 10-19 J eV-1
× 6.022 × 1023 atoms mole-1 0.232 kg mole-1 |
= | 9.56 × 1013 J kg-1 |
The total energy contained in India's thorium reserves is thus
| 0.879 × 3.19 ×108 kg × 9.56 × 1013 J kg-1 | = | 2.68 × 1022 J |
This would power India at present consumption rates for
| 2.68 × 1022 J 3.4 × 1019 J y-1 |
= | 788 years |
As reported in 2023 India's annual energy consumption levels were 3.4 × 1019 J. [4] If consumption were to remain similar year after year, the thorium reserves would supply India with enough energy for over 700 years.
In 1948, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru introduced the Atomic Energy Bill, leading to the establishment of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). [5] This period also saw India focusing on uranium for its nuclear energy program, with early plans to explore and utilize the country's uranium resources.
Thorium emerged as a valuable resource due to India's vast reserves found in monazite sands along its beaches, particularly in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Odisha. [5] Recognizing thorium's potential, India's nuclear energy strategy incorporated its use, aiming for a sustainable energy future less dependent on imported uranium. The AEC envisioned utilizing thorium in a three-stage nuclear program, designed to eventually transition to thorium-based reactors, taking advantage of its abundant reserves to achieve energy self-sufficiency.
India's approach to nuclear energy has been marked by its quest for independence in the nuclear fuel cycle, leading to the development of pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs) that required no enrichment and could be built within the country's existing capabilities. Over the years, India's nuclear program has accelerated advancement in the field with its significant contribution of Asia's first nuclear reactor, Apsara, in 1956. Since, the country's nuclear power capacity has grown significantly. As of November 2020, India operates 22 nuclear reactors with a total installed capacity of 7,380 MW, contributing to 3.11% of the total power generation with 43 TWh produced in the 2020-21 fiscal year. [6] This development is part of India's broader strategy to utilize its nuclear capacity for peaceful purposes while also exploring the potential of thorium reserves for future energy needs.
The Kalpakkam Project embarked on utilizing India's vast thorium reserves for nuclear reactors, initially incorporating Lead-Bismuth coolant, chosen for its excellent thermal conductivity and high boiling point, allowing reactors to operate at lower pressures while achieving higher temperatures, enhancing efficiency and safety. [7] This approach aimed to optimize reactor safety and performance at high temperatures, setting a foundation for future thorium use in India's nuclear strategy.
The project's Fast Reactor Fuel Cycle Facility, crucial for India's nuclear power strategy, was budgeted at about Rs 9,600 crores (~1.15 billion USD). [8] As of November 2021, the project, expected to complete by December 2027, reported 32% financial progress and promises to create significant employment opportunities. [8]
India's future in thorium and nuclear energy is set on a transformative path, emphasizing sustainable and efficient energy production. With the world's largest thorium reserves, India's strategic pivot towards thorium-based nuclear energy, exemplified by initiatives like the development of ANEEL fuel, underscores its commitment to cleaner energy solutions.
ANEEL fuel, developed by Clean Core Thorium Energy, combines Thorium and High Assay Low Enriched Uranium (HALEU), offering a transformative approach to nuclear energy. [9] It enables the efficient use of thorium by combining it with HALEU, which serves as a driver to facilitate thorium's use in nuclear reactors. This innovative approach enhances the reactor's ability to utilize thorium by converting it into a more readily fissionable material, thereby increasing fuel efficiency, reducing waste, and potentially lowering the overall operational costs of nuclear power generation. [9] Moreover, India's aim for net zero by 2070 aligns with its nuclear energy advancements, positioning thorium as a cornerstone of its energy policy. [9] These developments signal a shift towards a more environmentally friendly and economically viable nuclear energy future, leveraging thorium's potential to meet India's burgeoning energy needs.
India's journey towards leveraging its thorium reserves for nuclear energy is a testament to its commitment to sustainable and secure energy solutions. The strategic development of technologies like ANEEL fuel, which combines thorium with HALEU, is poised to revolutionize India's nuclear energy landscape. This innovative approach not only promises to make efficient use of India's abundant thorium but also aligns with global efforts to reduce carbon emissions and transition towards greener energy sources. As India continues to develop and implement these advancements, it stands on the brink of a new era in nuclear energy, potentially setting a global benchmark in thorium utilization for clean, reliable power generation.
© Harsh Parikh. The author warrants that the work is the author's own and that Stanford University provided no input other than typesetting and referencing guidelines. The author grants permission to copy, distribute and display this work in unaltered form, with attribution to the author, for noncommercial purposes only. All other rights, including commercial rights, are reserved to the author.
[1] N. Veerasamy et al., "Geochemical Characterization of Monazite Sands Based on Rare Earth Elements, Thorium, and Uranium From a Natural High Background Radiation Area in Tamil Nadu, India," J. Environ. Radioact. 232, 106565 (2021).
[2] "Details of Thorium Reserves," Government of India, Department of Atomic Energy, 10 May 12.
[3] T. Ünak, "What is the Potential Use of Thorium in the Future Energy Production Technology?" Prog, Nucl. Energy 37, 137 (2000).
[4] "Energy Statistics India - 2023," National Statistical Office, Government of India, March 2023.
[5] D.Hart, Nuclear Power in India (Routledge, 2019).
[6] N. K. Deb, "Nuclear Power - A Future Realistic," in 75 Years of Indian Independence: The Changing Landscape, edited by D. Das (B. D. Prakash, 2023).
[7] A. Kakodkar, "Perspective of a Developing Country With Expanding Nuclear Power Programme," in Innovative Technologies for Nuclear Fuel Cycles and Nuclear Power, International Atomic Energy Agency, IAEA-CSP-24, September 2004, p. 21.
[8] M. Ahmed, "India's Nuclear Exceptionalism," Belfer Center, May 2017.
[9] T. E. Rehm, "Advanced Nuclear Energy: the Safest and Most Renewable Clean Energy," Curr. Opin. Chem. Eng. 39, 100878 (2023).
