|
|
| Fig. 1: Comparative power output of Russian nuclear reactors, showing the evolution from newer models like BN-350, BN-600, BN-800, and BN-1200. (Image Source: A. Krishnamoorthi, after Paramonov et al. [2]) |
Russia, as one of the world's top five nations in nuclear power generation, plays a significant role in the global nuclear energy landscape. The nation's nuclear power sector, contributing 19.7% to the national electricity mix, is pivotal in driving the development of other industries. With 38 nuclear reactors across 11 nuclear power plants, Russia showcases a diverse array of reactor technologies, including 21 WWER reactors, 13 channel reactors, and advanced sodium-cooled fast reactors. [1] The strategic focus on closing the nuclear fuel cycle and enhancing fast reactor technologies underscores Russia's commitment to advancing its nuclear capabilities.
In the realm of innovative reactor designs, Russia has significant experience with heavy liquid metal reactors (HLMRs), particularly using lead-bismuth (Pb-Bi) eutectic coolants, a legacy of the Soviet era's Alpha-class submarines. This technology demonstrated the practicality of heavy liquid metal coolants in large-scale reactors, dealing with challenges like corrosion and polonium management. Despite this, there is a noticeable shift towards sodium-cooled fast breeders in recent developments, a move that invites questions given the historical success of Pb-Bi breeders in the Soviet naval program. [2]
Russia has emerged as a leader in nuclear technological innovation, addressing challenges such as the low utilization efficiency of natural uranium and the complexities of spent fuel management. The development of next-generation reactor technologies and the establishment of a closed fuel cycle are key steps toward a more efficient nuclear future. The ongoing construction of the BM-800 reactor and research into sodium-cooled and heavy liquid-metal cooled fast reactors exemplify Russia's pursuit of a more efficient nuclear energy paradigm. [3]
A substantial portion of Russia's current operating nuclear reactors are aging, most having begun construction in the late 20th century. For example, the Kursk-3 and Kursk-4 reactors were initiated in the late 1970s and early 1980s. With only three reactors currently under construction, there is a need for development to replace the outdated infrastructure and maintain the nuclear sector's efficiency. [4]
The BN-1200 reactor in Russia is an example of what a more modern-day reactor looks like. As a sodium- cooled fast reactor, it's designed for economic efficiency and a transition to a closed nuclear fuel cycle. Leveraging the experiences from the BN-600 and BN-800, it aims to reduce capital costs to be competitive with traditional water-cooled reactors. The BN-1200 features an integral primary system with advanced safety and operational efficiencies, including submersible coolant pumps and an in- vessel storage for spent fuel, reducing the need for external storage facilities. The reactor has a thermal power of 2800 MW and an electrical output of 1220 MW. Its core is designed to accommodate both MOX and nitride fuels, with a breeding ratio of 1.2 and 1.08, respectively, enhancing fuel utilization efficiency. [2] Safety enhancements include passive decay heat removal and shutdown systems, contributing to a lower core damage frequency that aligns with modern light water reactors. And when compared to previous reactors, its electric generation coupled with its modularity shows a significant improvement. (Fig. 1)
With an existing infrastructure of 38 reactors, Russia is not only meeting its current energy needs but also planning for future expansion to support its fuelenergy complex and economic interests. Economically, Russia is prioritizing the development of fast reactors, which promise a more efficient utilization of nuclear materials. This strategy aims to increase the NPP installed capacity substantially, reflecting Russia's approach to leveraging nuclear power to support its energy and economic objectives. [5] The reprocessing and recycling of spent fuel in fast reactors are central to Russia's strategy, aimed at reducing the need for fresh uranium and enhancing the efficiency of its nuclear sector. [6] Future development in Russian nuclear power is aligned with national energy demand forecasts, with plans to enhance nuclear power infrastructure and adopt advanced reactor technologies like the BN-1200 for improved efficiency. [7]
In developing its nuclear energy infrastructure, Russia focuses on ensuring safety and public acceptance, with Rosatom leading the strategy for nuclear energy development to 2050 and beyond. The strategy emphasizes economic factors, assessing competitiveness through the Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE). [8]
Russia's exploration of hydrogen production through nuclear energy appears as a component of its broader energy strategy, ostensibly aimed at improving the efficiency of nuclear technology in energy production. The development of high-temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGR) underscores this initiative, with the theoretical potential for efficient hydrogen production utilizing advanced nuclear technologies. [8] However, this pursuit might be more about maintaining an image of innovation and diversification rather than a genuine shift away from traditional energy sources. In practice, Russia's economic and strategic priorities remain deeply rooted in the oil and gas sectors. The strategic development of nuclear-hydrogen energy systems is presented as a method to bolster Russia's energy sector. Still, it is likely more of a supplementary venture rather than a pivot, intended to enhance Russia's standing in the global energy market without significantly detracting from its established oil and gas market interests. [9] While the economic arguments for hydrogen production are made attractive on paper, the reality suggests a continued preference and reliance on fossil fuel exploitation, aligning with Russia's enduring economic and energy paradigms. [8]
© Arnav Krishnamoorthi. The author warrants that the work is the author's own and that Stanford University provided no input other than typesetting and referencing guidelines. The author grants permission to copy, distribute and display this work in unaltered form, with attribution to the author, for noncommercial purposes only. All other rights, including commercial rights, are reserved to the author.
[1] M. Pagliaro, "Renewable Energy in Russia: A Critical perspective," Energy Sci. Eng. 9, 950 (2020).
[2] D. V. Paramonov and E.D. Paramonova, "Generation IV Concepts: USSR and Russia," in Handbook of Generation IV Nuclear Reactors, ed. by I. Pioro (Woodhead Publishing, 2015).
[3] V. G. Asmolov, A. V. Zrodnikov, and M. I. Solonin, "Innovative Development of Nuclear Power in Russia," At. Energy 103, 665 (2007).
[4] "Nuclear Power Reactors in the World," International Atomic Energy Agency, IAEA-RDS-2/41, July 2021.
[5] P. N. Alekseev et al., "On a Strategy for the Development of Nuclear Power in Russia," At. Energy 126, 207 (2019).
[6] L. A.Bol'shov and I. I. Linge, "Strategy for the Development of Nuclear Energy in Russia and Environmental Matters," At. Energy 127, 333 (2020).
[7] E. O. Adamovet al., "Conceptual Framework of a Strategy For the Development of Nuclear Power in Russia to 2100," At. Energy 112, 391 (2012).
[8] S. Z. Zhiznin, V. M. Timokhov, and A. L. Gusev, "Economic Aspects of Nuclear and Hydrogen Energy in the World and Russia," Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 45, 31353 (2020).
[9] V. F. Veselov and A. A. Khorshev, "Optimal Scale of Development of Nuclear Energy in the UES of Russia to 2050," At. Energy 128, 259 (2020).